Primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT) most commonly occurs sporadically, typically caused by a parathyroid adenoma. Such cases are more common in women and with increasing age. Other risk factors include neck irradiation and lithium use. Inherited cases can occur in relation to genetic conditions including MEN1. Parathyroid carcinoma is vanishingly rare. PHPT may present with symptoms of hypercalcaemia (such as thirst, excessive urination or constipation), or evidence of potential end organ effects. However, the most common presentation is an incidental finding of a raised albumin-adjusted serum calcium.

Around 60,000 people in the UK are estimated to have cirrhosis. It is now the third most common cause of premature death. Decompensation represents a watershed moment for patients with cirrhosis, with the median survival falling from > 12 years for compensated cirrhosis to approximately two years. Patients with cirrhosis should undergo six-monthly ultrasound to screen for the early development of primary hepatocellular carcinoma. They should also undergo an initial upper gastrointestinal endoscopy to screen for varices.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) classically causes a symmetrical, small joint polyarthritis which left untreated can lead to joint destruction and deformity. NICE recommends that any adult with suspected persistent synovitis of undetermined cause should be referred for a specialist opinion. Patients should be referred urgently (even with a normal acute-phase response, negative anti-CCP antibodies or rheumatoid factor) if any of the following apply: the small joints of the hands or feet are affected; > 1 joint is affected; there has been a delay of ≥ 3 months between onset of symptoms and seeking medical advice.

The incidence of epilepsy in the UK is estimated to be 50 per 100,000 per year and up to 1% of the population have active epilepsy. The diagnosis of epilepsy will usually be made in a neurology clinic. A generalised seizure as part of a generalised epilepsy syndrome may occur without warning but may be preceded by blank spells or myoclonic jerks. A generalised seizure with focal onset may be preceded by an aura. Brain imaging is required in almost all cases where epilepsy is suspected, the only possible exception being people with generalised epilepsies proven on EEG. MRI is the imaging modality of choice.

First trimester miscarriage affects up to one in four pregnancies. While some women will experience bleeding and pain, others have no symptoms and are given the diagnosis at their 12-13 week booking scan. In 50-85% of cases the cause is due to a spontaneous chromosomal abnormality, most commonly trisomy. Many women suffer from psychological sequelae including PTSD, anxiety and depression. GPs should offer a follow-up appointment to all women who have had a miscarriage to: discuss any questions the woman has regarding her miscarriage; assess the woman’s psychological wellbeing and offer counselling if appropriate.

Endometriosis affects around one in ten women of reproductive age in the UK. NICE guidance highlights the importance of symptoms in its diagnosis. A normal abdominal or pelvic examination, ultrasound, or MRI should not exclude the diagnosis. Endometriosis should be suspected in women and adolescents who present with one or more of: chronic pelvic pain, significant dysmenorrhoea, deep dyspareunia, period-related or cyclical GI or urinary symptoms, or infertility. If endometriosis is suspected or symptoms persist, patients should be referred for further assessment.

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a cause of painless, gradual loss of vision. Epidemiological evidence suggests 4-8% of people aged over 65 years in the UK have visually significant AMD. Patients with suspected neovascular AMD (NvAMD) should be seen by ophthalmology within two weeks, and if the diagnosis and progressive disease are confirmed, treatment should commence within the same timeframe. Intravitreal anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) agents cause regression of neovascularisation and reduce macular oedema. There is no treatment for dry AMD.

Elderly onset rheumatoid arthritis (EORA) is defined as rheumatoid arthritis (RA) with age of first onset 65 years or over. It comprises an acute onset proximal or large joint arthritis with a prominent systemic syndrome characterised by constitutional symptoms and a higher ESR than in the younger patient with RA. Investigations should focus on trying to establish the cause and ruling out differential diagnoses. They should include inflammatory markers, serum uric acid, full blood count, rheumatoid factor/anti-CCP antibodies, and X-rays of the affected joint as well as the hands and feet. The possibility of malignancy should always be borne in mind. NICE recommends urgent referral of all suspected cases.

Serotonin-noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) reduce both pain and disability in patients with low back pain and osteoarthritis (OA). However, the effect is small and not clinically relevant for back pain, although a clinically important effect for OA cannot be ruled out, a systematic review and meta-analysis has concluded.

The current national vaccination programme for COVID-19 has been a remarkable success of historic proportions. Whether carried out at major district hubs or in small GP practices, the logistics, the organisation, the friendliness, and the positivity, are all attributes that everyone involved can be proud of. Many GP teams have found this work challenging but also incredibly heart warming.

High NT-proBNP levels appear to be an independent predictor of adverse outcomes in patients with atrial fibrillation (AF) in the absence of heart failure, a study from Japan has found. Raised NT-proBNP levels were significantly associated with higher incidences of stroke/systemic embolism, all-cause death and hospitalisation for heart failure during a median follow-up period of five years.

Patterns of alcohol consumption in particular frequent use plus frequent bingeing have positive associations with symptoms of depression such as depressed mood, poor appetite or overeating, feelings of worthlessness or guilt and psychomotor agitation or retardation, a German study has found.