Symposium articles

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)is a condition characterised by hyperandrogenism, multifollicular ovaries and ovulatory dysfunction. It affects 8-13% of women of reproductive age and is associated with insulin resistance, hyperlipidaemia and obesity. Baseline measurements should include blood pressure and BMI. Clinical signs of hyperandrogenism including hirsutism, acne and androgenic alopecia should be assessed. A hormone profile should be done during days 1-5 of the menstrual cycle or as a random sample when there is amenorrhoea.

Glomerulonephritis is the second most common cause of end stage renal disease in the UK and the most common cause in those under 35. Some forms can respond well to treatment if diagnosed early. However, if glomerulonephritis goes unrecognised, it can lead to irreversible loss of renal function. Glomerulonephritis can present in a wide variety of ways, ranging from asymptomatic urinary abnormalities to fulminant disease with life-threatening acute kidney injury and extra-renal manifestations. Asymptomatic invisible haematuria is common. In the absence of infection or a urological cause, glomerulonephritis should be considered. Significant proteinuria (> 1 g/day) in the absence of an identifiable cause warrants referral. 

Late life psychosis may be caused by organic conditions including: delirium, dementia, drug intoxication or withdrawal, or a general medical condition. In these situations there should be evidence of a temporal relationship between the psychosis and the underlying condition. Around 60% of older adults presenting with new onset psychosis have an identifiable underlying organic cause. If an underlying medical condition can be excluded, and there is no evidence to support a diagnosis of delirium or dementia, then the cause of psychosis may be functional. This is more likely if there is a family or personal history of mental illness.

Psychosis is a state of mind in which a person loses contact with reality in at least one important respect while not intoxicated with, or withdrawing from, alcohol or drugs, and while not affected by an acute physical illness that better accounts for the symptoms. Common positive symptoms of psychosis include delusions and hallucinations. These symptoms are strongly influenced by the underlying cause of the psychosis: delusions in schizophrenia tend to be bizarre; delusions in depression negative; delusions in mania expansive. When a patient presents with psychotic symptoms, it is important to take a full psychiatric history, perform a mental state examination and complete relevant investigations, as indicated in each individual case.

Cardiac rehabilitation is a combination of medical and behavioural interventions designed to facilitate recovery and prevent future cardiovascular disease events. A cardiovascular prevention and rehabilitation programme (CPRP) is a critical element within the management pathway for most patients with heart disease and has a particularly strong evidence base for those with either symptomatic atherothrombotic vascular disease or heart failure. Following acute MI and/or coronary revascularisation, attending and completing a CPRP is associated with an absolute risk reduction in cardiovascular mortality from 10.4% to 7.6%.

Obstructive sleep apnoea hypopnoea syndrome (OSAHS) is characterised by repeated episodes of partial or complete collapse of the upper respiratory passages, mainly the oropharyngeal tract, during sleep. Obesity is the strongest risk factor for OSAHS; other risk factors include smoking, excessive drinking, sedatives and hypnotics. Habitual snoring, unrefreshing sleep and daytime somnolence suggests the possibility of OSAHS. When this is combined with a partner’s account of nocturnal apnoeas or snoring pauses the diagnosis becomes highly likely. However, negative screening results or the absence of clinical features by themselves should not be used to rule out OSAHS.

Neuropathic pain is defined as ‘pain that is caused by a lesion or disease of the somatosensory nervous system.’ The International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP) pain grading system is a simple way of determining the likelihood of a neuropathic component. If the history suggests a relevant neurological lesion or disease and the patient describes pain in an anatomically plausible distribution of a nerve, neuropathic pain is ‘possible’; it is ‘probable’ if there are corresponding examination findings in that same distribution and ‘definite’ if there is a confirmatory diagnostic test. 

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) accounts for around 90% of liver cancer cases and intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (CC) for 9-10%. Most cases of HCC occur in the context of chronic liver disease with cirrhosis, particularly in those with chronic hepatitis B or C. Other major risk factors include excessive alcohol consumption, obesity and aflatoxins. Overall, 10-15% of cirrhotic patients will develop HCC within 20 years. Patients presenting with an upper abdominal mass consistent with an enlarged liver should be referred for an urgent direct access ultrasound scan within two weeks. 

Atopic eczema, or atopic dermatitis, affects up to 20% of children and often presents in infancy. Cow’s milk allergy can also manifest as eczema and gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms. Food allergy should be suspected if there is a clear history of a reaction to a food in infants with moderate to severe eczema not responding to standard treatment, in infants with very early onset eczema (under 3 months) and those with GI symptoms. Seborrhoeic dermatitis is often an early manifestation of atopic eczema. Naevus simplex is a common congenital capillary malformation occurring in up to 40% of newborns. Port wine stains are less common, affecting about 0.3% of infants. 

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a multisystem, autoimmune disease. SLE mainly affects women and causes fatigue, rashes (often associated with photosensitivity), hair loss and inflammatory arthritis. However, it can also affect men in whom it is often more severe with a greater likelihood of renal involvement and a greater degree of organ damage. According to the British Society for Rheumatology guideline, the diagnosis of SLE requires a combination of clinical features and the presence of at least one relevant immunological abnormality.

Acute prostatitis is an acute bacterial infection of the prostate gland, often associated with other urinary tract infections. Patients with acute prostatitis present feeling generally unwell with fever, rigors, pelvic pain and lower urinary tract symptoms. Acute prostatitis can also present with, or lead to, acute urinary retention. Patients who are systemically unwell should be referred urgently to secondary care for intravenous antibiotics and further investigation, as should those failing to respond appropriately or deteriorating on review after 48 hours. Chronic bacterial prostatitis is characterised by symptoms that last for more than three months. 

The term premenstrual syndrome (PMS) refers to a constellation of mood and physical symptoms that occur during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. The National Association for Premenstrual Syndrome suggests that: ‘If PMS symptoms affect personal and/or social and/or professional quality of life then this should be regarded as being clinically significant PMS.’ Some women give a clear history of onset during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, with improvement taking place within a few days after the onset of menses. However, other women present with fluctuating symptoms without making a connection with their menstrual cycle. There are no diagnostic tests for PMS; diagnosis is dependent on the history. 

End stage renal disease can be defined as the requirement for kidney transplantation or dialysis therapy. In the UK in 2016, of the 63,162 people receiving renal replacement therapy 53% were renal transplant recipients, 41% were on haemodialysis and 6% were on peritoneal dialysis. Dialysis should be started when: symptoms of uraemia impact on day to day living; the need is indicated by biochemical measures or uncontrollable fluid overload or at an eGFR of 5-7 ml/min/1.73 m² in the absence of symptoms. The choice of dialysis modality is influenced by the individual’s functional status, social circumstances and confidence.

A detailed history is essential in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) to elucidate red flag symptoms necessitating urgent specialist assessment. Red flags include syncope and presyncope, particularly in patients with concomitant left ventricular systolic dysfunction. Palpitations with severe chest pain and breathlessness also warrant urgent assessment. Undiagnosed atrial fibrillation (AF) is common in older populations. LVEF of 35% or less is a predictor of increased risk of sudden death. All patients with CAD should therefore undergo assessment of LVEF, usually by transthoracic echocardiography.

Chronic low back pain is a common problem. Lifetime adult prevalence rates vary from 50 to 80%, and around a quarter of adults say they have experienced back pain during the past month. One in 40 report disabling back or neck pain. Each year around 7% of patients consult their GP with back pain. In 65-70% of primary care patients with low back pain there is no known pathoanatomical cause. Their pain is described as nonspecific and is postulated to arise from muscle strain or ligamentous injury. A further 15-20% of patients have mechanical low back pain with an identifiable cause such as degenerative disc or joint disease.