Symposium articles

Neuropathic pain is defined as ‘pain that is caused by a lesion or disease of the somatosensory nervous system.’ The International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP) pain grading system is a simple way of determining the likelihood of a neuropathic component. If the history suggests a relevant neurological lesion or disease and the patient describes pain in an anatomically plausible distribution of a nerve, neuropathic pain is ‘possible’; it is ‘probable’ if there are corresponding examination findings in that same distribution and ‘definite’ if there is a confirmatory diagnostic test. 

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic inflammatory condition which runs a relapsing and remitting course. Ulcerative colitis (UC) is more common than Crohn’s disease (CD). UC almost always affects the rectum and extends proximally and continuously to the colon to a variable extent. CD most commonly affects the terminal ileum or colon but can affect any part of the gastrointestinal tract from the mouth to the anus. The vast majority (90%) of people with UC report bloody stools compared with less than 50% of those with CD. CD is characterised by a triad of abdominal pain, diarrhoea and weight loss.

Atopic eczema, or atopic dermatitis, affects up to 20% of children and often presents in infancy. Cow’s milk allergy can also manifest as eczema and gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms. Food allergy should be suspected if there is a clear history of a reaction to a food in infants with moderate to severe eczema not responding to standard treatment, in infants with very early onset eczema (under 3 months) and those with GI symptoms. Seborrhoeic dermatitis is often an early manifestation of atopic eczema. Naevus simplex is a common congenital capillary malformation occurring in up to 40% of newborns. Port wine stains are less common, affecting about 0.3% of infants. 

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a multisystem, autoimmune disease. SLE mainly affects women and causes fatigue, rashes (often associated with photosensitivity), hair loss and inflammatory arthritis. However, it can also affect men in whom it is often more severe with a greater likelihood of renal involvement and a greater degree of organ damage. According to the British Society for Rheumatology guideline, the diagnosis of SLE requires a combination of clinical features and the presence of at least one relevant immunological abnormality.

Acute prostatitis is an acute bacterial infection of the prostate gland, often associated with other urinary tract infections. Patients with acute prostatitis present feeling generally unwell with fever, rigors, pelvic pain and lower urinary tract symptoms. Acute prostatitis can also present with, or lead to, acute urinary retention. Patients who are systemically unwell should be referred urgently to secondary care for intravenous antibiotics and further investigation, as should those failing to respond appropriately or deteriorating on review after 48 hours. Chronic bacterial prostatitis is characterised by symptoms that last for more than three months. 

The term premenstrual syndrome (PMS) refers to a constellation of mood and physical symptoms that occur during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. The National Association for Premenstrual Syndrome suggests that: ‘If PMS symptoms affect personal and/or social and/or professional quality of life then this should be regarded as being clinically significant PMS.’ Some women give a clear history of onset during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, with improvement taking place within a few days after the onset of menses. However, other women present with fluctuating symptoms without making a connection with their menstrual cycle. There are no diagnostic tests for PMS; diagnosis is dependent on the history. 

End stage renal disease can be defined as the requirement for kidney transplantation or dialysis therapy. In the UK in 2016, of the 63,162 people receiving renal replacement therapy 53% were renal transplant recipients, 41% were on haemodialysis and 6% were on peritoneal dialysis. Dialysis should be started when: symptoms of uraemia impact on day to day living; the need is indicated by biochemical measures or uncontrollable fluid overload or at an eGFR of 5-7 ml/min/1.73 m² in the absence of symptoms. The choice of dialysis modality is influenced by the individual’s functional status, social circumstances and confidence.

A detailed history is essential in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) to elucidate red flag symptoms necessitating urgent specialist assessment. Red flags include syncope and presyncope, particularly in patients with concomitant left ventricular systolic dysfunction. Palpitations with severe chest pain and breathlessness also warrant urgent assessment. Undiagnosed atrial fibrillation (AF) is common in older populations. LVEF of 35% or less is a predictor of increased risk of sudden death. All patients with CAD should therefore undergo assessment of LVEF, usually by transthoracic echocardiography.

Chronic low back pain is a common problem. Lifetime adult prevalence rates vary from 50 to 80%, and around a quarter of adults say they have experienced back pain during the past month. One in 40 report disabling back or neck pain. Each year around 7% of patients consult their GP with back pain. In 65-70% of primary care patients with low back pain there is no known pathoanatomical cause. Their pain is described as nonspecific and is postulated to arise from muscle strain or ligamentous injury. A further 15-20% of patients have mechanical low back pain with an identifiable cause such as degenerative disc or joint disease. 

The National Review of Asthma Deaths found that most patients who died were actually considered to have mild to moderate asthma, with 57% of fatal cases not under specialist care at the time of their death. In cases of fatal asthma there was widespread underuse of inhaled corticosteroids and an overreliance on short-acting beta-agonists. Referral to secondary care should take place when there is diagnostic uncertainty or atypical features, the possibility of hypersensitivity to inhaled material or concerns over treatment or exacerbations. Patients who have suffered even a single life-threatening asthma attack should be under specialist supervision. 

Around 50% of people diagnosed with ischaemic heart disease present with stable angina as the first symptom. The likelihood of a diagnosis of angina increases with the number of cardiovascular risk factors present. A resting 12-lead ECG is recommended for all patients with suspected angina. However, a normal result does not exclude the presence of underlying coronary artery disease.

Medication overuse headache (MOH) occurs as a complication of the management of primary headache disorders, mainly migraine and tension type headache. MOH does not occur in cluster headache unless there is associated migraine. MOH is defined as headache occurring on 15 or more days per month, that has evolved in association with the frequent use of acute medication over a period of more than 3 months. Any medication used for the acute treatment of headache can cause MOH.

The combination of an aggressive disease, vague presenting symptoms and insensitive standard diagnostic tests is a key factor contributing to poor outcomes with only 15% of patients with pancreatic cancer having operable disease at diagnosis. The NICE guideline on referral for suspected cancer recommends urgent referral via a suspected cancer pathway referral if the patient is aged 40 and over with jaundice. It also recommends that an urgent direct access computerised tomography (CT) scan referral should be considered in patients aged 60 and over with weight loss and any of the following: diarrhoea; back pain; abdominal pain; nausea; vomiting; constipation; new onset diabetes. Pancreatic cancer requires a CT scan for diagnosis.

The BTS/SIGN guideline specifies that the accurate measurement of oxygen saturation is essential in the assessment of all children with acute wheezing. It recommends that oxygen saturation probes and monitors should be available for use by all healthcare professionals assessing acute asthma in primary care. It is important to use the appropriate size paediatric probe to ensure accuracy. Any patient who presents to the GP practice with any features of a moderate exacerbation should be referred to an emergency department for further assessment and monitoring. 

Co-occurring severe mental illness, usually schizophrenia or bipolar affective disorder, and substance misuse is termed dual diagnosis. Mental illness and its consequences may lead to substance misuse as a coping strategy. Substance misuse can lead to mental health problems, either by triggering a first episode in a susceptible person, or by exacerbating an existing disorder. However, substance misuse itself is unlikely to be the sole cause of a severe and enduring mental illness.