Special Interest: Women's health

Common mental health disorders affect around one in five women during pregnancy and the first year following childbirth. Depression and anxiety disorders are the most prevalent mental health disorders during this period as they are at other times of life. It is important to distinguish postnatal depression from baby blues, which is common and requires no treatment, although it is a potential risk factor for postnatal depression. Postpartum psychosis affects 1 in 1,000 women and can develop very quickly in the first two weeks postpartum, often requiring urgent admission to a specialised mother and baby unit. One in six women with bipolar disorder will develop postpartum psychosis. 

For obese women the risks of adverse outcomes during pregnancy, for both the mother and her child, are significantly higher than for the general population. In 2016, 21% of all women attending antenatal services in the UK were reported to have a BMI of 30 kg/m² or higher. In 2003-2005, 27% of all maternal deaths occurred in women with a BMI of 30 kg/m² or higher. Obesity increases the risk of venous thromboembolism, gestational diabetes, pre-eclampsia and hypertension. There is an increased likelihood of induction of labour, instrumental delivery and postpartum haemorrhage. The greatest effect on risk reduction is weight loss prior to conception.

Heavy menstrual bleeding has been defined as ‘excessive menstrual blood loss which interferes with a woman’s physical, social, emotional, and/or material quality of life’. Heavy menstrual bleeding affects 25% of women of reproductive age and is estimated to be the fourth most common reason for gynaecological referrals. Women should be asked about pelvic pain which might suggest endometriosis and pressure symptoms which might suggest significant fibroids. Examination is appropriate if there is intermenstrual or postcoital bleeding and, if the woman is actively bleeding, may identify the source of the bleeding.

Endometriosis affects around one in ten women of reproductive age in the UK. NICE guidance highlights the importance of symptoms in its diagnosis. A normal abdominal or pelvic examination, ultrasound, or MRI should not exclude the diagnosis. Endometriosis should be suspected in women and adolescents who present with one or more of: chronic pelvic pain, significant dysmenorrhoea, deep dyspareunia, period-related or cyclical GI or urinary symptoms, or infertility. If endometriosis is suspected or symptoms persist, patients should be referred for further assessment.

Fibroids are benign, hormone-dependent tumours of uterine smooth muscle and connective tissue. They are commonly asymptomatic, but can cause symptoms such as heavy menstrual bleeding and pelvic pressure symptoms. Around 20 to 30% of women with heavy menstrual bleeding have fibroids. Fibroids are most prevalent in women aged 30-50 years and there may be a genetic predisposition. They are more common in black women than white women. Other risk factors include obesity and nulliparity. Asymptomatic women should only be referred if their uterus is palpable abdominally, if fibroids distort the uterine cavity or the uterus is larger than 12 cm in length.

Severity and duration of menopausal symptoms varies markedly. Eight out of ten women experience symptoms and on average these last four years, with one in ten women experiencing symptoms for up to 12 years. Menopausal symptoms can begin years before menstruation ceases. A recent study found that women whose vasomotor symptoms started before the menopause suffered longest, median 11.8 years. Women whose hot flushes and night sweats started after the menopause had symptoms for a median of 3.4 years.

A retrospective population based cohort study from the United States has found a modest correlation between older paternal age and adverse perinatal outcomes.

Induction at term significantly reduced the Caesarean section rate, compared with expectant management, in low-risk nulliparous women in a large multicentre trial from the US. However, it did not confer any benefits in terms of perinatal outcomes.

Administering a drink of sodium bicarbonate dissolved in water to women with dystocia an hour before oxytocin treatment resulted in better outcomes for both mother and child, compared with standard oxytocin treatment alone, a small trial from Sweden has found.

Miscarriage is the most common complication of pregnancy. It is defined as a pregnancy failure occurring before the completion of 24 weeks of gestation. It has been estimated that 10 to 15% of all pregnancies end in early spontaneous first trimester miscarriage i.e. before the end of the completed twelfth week of pregnancy. The risk of miscarriage decreases with increasing gestational age, and late miscarriages, from 12 to 24 weeks’ gestation, occur in only 1-4% of cases. While miscarriage is rarely associated with significant health problems, it can cause significant psychological distress to the woman and her partner. [With external links to the current evidence base]

Postmenopausal women who take systemic hormone replacement therapy (HRT) are more likely to develop Alzheimer’s disease, although the increase in risk is modest, a Finnish nationwide case-control study has found.

Diabetes is known to increase the risk of occlusive vascular events, and this is one of the main causes of premature death associated with the condition. A recent meta-analysis of nearly one million individuals has shown that the risk of occlusive events in diabetes is doubled for men but tripled for women. Importantly, this study was able to control for other major vascular risk factors.

Maternal pre-eclampsia is associated with an increased risk of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in offspring, a meta-analysis has found. Compared with unexposed offspring, children who were exposed to pre-eclampsia in utero were 32% more likely to develop ASD.

• Superficial thrombophlebitis
• Polymorphic eruption of pregnancy
• Chloasma
• Naevi
• Jaundice