Cancer

Basal cell carcinomas (BCCs) and squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) are clinically and pathologically distinct and both are locally invasive. However, while BCCs rarely metastasise, SCCs have the potential to do so especially when they arise on the ears or lips. Patients with one non-melanoma skin cancer (NMSC) have a higher risk of developing another NMSC and of malignant melanoma.

Lung cancer is the most common cause of cancer death, both in the UK and worldwide. There has been little change in survival over the past 20 years, with increasing evidence that there are disparities in outcomes between the UK and other comparable healthcare systems. It has been postulated that this is due to an excess of early deaths, delays in diagnosis are thought to contribute to this problem. A recent study showed that 30% of patients with lung cancer die within the first 90 days and they have seen their GP on average five times in the four months before diagnosis, suggesting there may be opportunities to diagnose these patients earlier in the disease process. The challenge GPs face is to identify and refer those at risk as early as possible and to maintain a high index of suspicion if symptoms persist.  [With external links to current evidence base]

Gastric cancer often presents late and the mortality ratio remains one of the highest compared with more common cancers. Early diagnosis improves survival in this potentially curable cancer. Dysphagia, weight loss and age over 55 are significant predictors of cancer. All patients presenting with dyspepsia and either alarm features or known conditions that increase the risk of gastric cancer should be referred for urgent endoscopy. Given that the majority of gastric cancer cases occur in people over 55, urgent endoscopy is also recommended in patients in this age group with new uncomplicated dyspepsia prior to treatment, even without alarm symptoms or if the symptoms respond to treatment. [With external links to current evidence base]

A suspicion of a diagnosis of prostate cancer is usually based on either induration or nodularity of the prostate on digital rectal examination or, more commonly, a rise in serum prostate specific antigen (PSA) level. The usual cut-off point for PSA is taken as 4 ng/ml, but in men below 65 a value of more than 2.5 ng/ml should raise suspicion. The Gleason grading of any cancer identified is an important part of the decision-making process concerning the need for active treatment, as opposed to surveillance alone. Gleason pattern 6 cancers are regarded as low risk, Gleason 7 intermediate risk and 8-10 high risk. [With external links to the current evidence base]

Bladder cancer is the most frequently diagnosed cancer involving the urinary tract. Delayed diagnosis is associated with high-grade muscle invasive disease which has the potential to progress rapidly, metastasise and is often fatal. Haematuria which is typically intermittent, frank, painless and at times present throughout micturition is the classical and most common presentation of bladder cancer. However, irritative symptoms such as dysuria, urgency, urge incontinence and frequency as well as obstructive symptoms i.e. feeling of incomplete voiding, intermittent stream and straining can also be experienced. [With external links to the current evidence base]

Lesions which have a high index of suspicion for melanoma should not be removed in primary care. Patients should be referred urgently to secondary care with a history recording the duration of the lesion, change in size, colour, shape and symptoms.  [With external links to current evidence and summaries]

Colorectal cancer is the second most common cause of death from cancer in the UK. The UK has one of the lowest survival rates for colorectal cancer in Europe. Collaborative work from cancer registries across Europe has indicated that early symptom recognition and early diagnosis are important factors in improving survival. GPs play an important role in recognising symptoms and supporting patients through the investigation and ongoing management of their disease.  [With external links to current evidence and summaries]

All women with postmenopausal bleeding should be referred urgently. Endometrial cancer is present in approximately 10% of cases. First-line investigation is a transvaginal ultrasound scan. A normal TVUS is reassuring, and if examination is normal further investigation is not required, providing the bleeding has stopped. There is no evidence to indicate whether different patterns of postmenopausal bleeding such as one-off bleeding or more frequent bleeds are more likely to be associated with malignancy. [With external links to current evidence and summaries]

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer mortality in the UK resulting in more than 33,500 deaths in 2008, 4,000 more than for bowel and breast cancer combined. Five-year survival figures are poor but have recently improved from around 5% to 7.5% in men and 8.5% in women.There is evidence of marked variation in the standard of care in England.  It has recently been shown that if patients are first referred to a thoracic surgical centre, rather than a hospital that does not have thoracic surgeons on site, they are 51% more likely to have a resection. There are similar findings for other active treatments. By reducing this variation there is scope for marked improvement in outcomes, possibly to levels seen in other countries such as Australia, Canada, Sweden and Norway where five-year survival rates are approximately double. Thus there is a need to encourage lung cancer teams to select patients correctly so that the best treatment can be offered. Improving diagnosis, staging and fitness assessment was a major focus in the recently updated NICE guideline on diagnosis and treatment of lung cancer, published in April 2011.  [With external links to current evidence and summaries]

Ovarian cancer is the fifth most common cancer in women. The incidence has increased over the past 20-25 years, particularly in the 65 and over age group. The outcome for women with ovarian cancer is generally poor, with an overall five-year survival rate of less than 35%. The survival rates for women with ovarian cancer in the UK are significantly lower than the European average. Despite recommendations, published by NICE in 2005, on referral of patients with suspected cancer, the majority of women diagnosed with ovarian cancer are not electively referred via the ovarian cancer two-week pathway. They are often referred to the wrong specialty or present as emergencies. NICE has now published a clinical guideline on the diagnosis and initial management of ovarian cancer.  [With external links to current evidence and summaries]